The Complete History of Bloody Lake, Woodford, WI

Brief overview: 

From pre-historic animals to the Battle that earned the lake its name to the current day Rendezvous gatherings- this blog has everything you need to know about Blackhawk Memorial Park- also known as Bloody Lake. Includes many recent photos, maps and historical images (with links), even a ghost story. While not book-length, it covers the entire history of the area known today as Bloody Lake and Blackhawk Memorial Park in Woodford, WI.

            There are very few places in this world that I feel a deep connection with, but Blackhawk Memorial Park is one of them. I come from there, my family settled in the nearby towns of Woodford and Wiota about 100 years ago. I have been visiting the park since I was a small child and have always known the basics of the history, but there was much more I didn’t know. As an adult I still love to go camping every Memorial Day and Labor Day with my friends, in the rustic woods of Bloody Lake. The park is one of the few places I love that hasn’t changed much over my lifetime. I feel like part of history is preserved there, even to this day.

Blackhawk Memorial Park, also known to the local population as Woodford Park or Bloody Lake, is located in the rolling green hills of southwestern Wisconsin, in rural Lafayette County. This rustic, or even primitive, campground and park can be found “6 miles south of Argyle and just north of the village of Woodford” (Heffron). Lying on the bank of the Pecatonica River at a place called Horseshoe Bend, it includes three small lakes within the oxbow of the river. They are called Bloody Lake, Horseshoe Lake and Dead River (Revolinski 14). Today the park lies about 800 feet above sea level (Landscapes), but this hasn’t always been the case.

            The area was covered by seas, off and on, up until about 360 million years ago. Surprisingly, there are no rocks younger than 360 million years old in Wisconsin. If older material ever existed, it has been removed by erosion. This lack of older rocks means there is no proof that dinosaurs ever lived in Wisconsin, although evidence found in surrounding areas indicate they likely did. Woodford Park’s bedrock is composed of “sandstone with some limestone shale and conglomerates” (Bedrock Geology). The soil of the area today is “streambottom and major wetland” and “forested silty soil” (Soil Regions).

            During the last glaciation, up until 10,000 years ago, the park was part of the “driftless area”. It was not covered with ice or glaciers (Ice Age Deposits). During that time it was mostly spruce and hemlock forests full of ice age animals. There were “wooly mammoth, large beaver and horses” living in the forests (Bareto, et al) along with ground sloths, beautiful armadillos, short-faced skunks, dire wolves, short-faced bears, American lions, saber-tooth cats, tapirs, peccaries, stag moose and American mastodons (Pleistocene Animals).

            Also during that time the first humans began to arrive in the area. 10,000 years ago wooly mammoth, bison and mastodon hunting brought Paleo-Indians into the state. By 8,000 years ago the people began to create “smaller family groups in caves, rock shelters, along rivers and around lakes and wetlands” as hunter gatherers. The ice age animals were gone by this time. Around 3,000 years ago the first villages appear, the people “began to use bows and arrows to hunt”. People began calling themselves the Oneota (modern spelling Oneida) around 1,000 years ago. They planted crops and had a “complex trade network that spanned to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts”. The first Europeans would have begun making their way into the park area around 350 years ago, sometime after Nicolet. The French explorer, the first European in Wisconsin, came through Green Bay in 1634 (Cultural Overview). If any natives lived in the park area before the settlers, it would most likely have been the Kickapoo. This was their territory during the 17^th century (Gibson 37).

            When the Europeans arrived the area was a mixture of “prairie, oak savanna and southern oak forest” (Early Vegetation). Because the glaciers never reached southwestern Wisconsin during the last ice age it became one of the “most rugged landscapes in the state” (Landscapes). From the 1700s to the 1800s the area was populated with elk, bison, wolves, cougars and whitetail deer (Department of Natural Resources). The area was likely also inhabited by the “Winnebago, Chippewa, Ottawa and Potawatomi” by the treaties of 1832-1833. That is when those groups “ceded all the land of Southern Wisconsin to the U.S.” (Gara 46).

            Despite the area being known for its incredibly fertile cropland today, the first settlers in Southwestern Wisconsin didn’t come here to farm. They were drawn in by the large deposits of lead found in our rolling hills. Today’s Lafayette County is a part of this lead region. (Farming) The closest town, present day Wiota, was originally known as Hamilton’s Diggings. Basically a mining camp, it was named for Colonel William S. Hamilton, son of Alexander Hamilton. Desire for this valuable ore brought settlers and created small towns in the area like New Diggings and Lead Mine along with Hamilton’s Diggings. These settlers eventually clashed with the Natives. When things escalated, becoming the Black Hawk War, Col. Hamilton fortified his camp, creating Fort Hamilton at that spot. (Brandenburg).

            The Black Hawk War is the first written record I was able to find of any human setting foot in the area that now comprises the park. On June 14, 1832 a group of Kickapoo, possibly loosely affiliated with Chief Black Hawk, allegedly “attacked a group of settlers” near the present day park, mortally wounding five (Lewis). Two days later, this group allegedly killed a man named Henry Apple, whom they may or may not have believed to be Colonel Henry Dodge. The soldiers had not fared well thus far in battles with the natives, due to severe disorganization. This time though, Captain Gentry and Col. Dodge demanded obedience from their men before they even set out in pursuit of the 11 Kickapoo alleged to have killed Apple (Trask 232- 233).

Dodge and 29 others chased the warriors across a swollen branch of the Pecatonica (Trask 233). Included in Dodge’s party along with militiamen were allied Sioux, Winnebago, Menomonie (Dodge) and Ho-Chunk (Hall 156). The soldiers and allied natives found the Kickapoo hiding under an embankment of a place known today as Bloody Lake, in Black Hawk Memorial Park (Trask 233).

Having them cornered after a difficult chase through the treacherous ground, Dodge ordered his men to march into the swamp after the Natives. Once the Kickapoo let off their first volley, wounding 3 of Dodge’s men, the remaining 18 militiamen fired a volley and charged before the Natives could reload. (Dodge). According to Peter Parkinson “after discharging their guns they became entangled in a brutal hand to hand melee-spears and tomahawks, bayonets, musket butts, and bare hands.” (Trask 234). Dodge later says his men “behaved with great gallantry”, he couldn’t “discriminate among them”. (Dodge).

The brief battle left all 11 Kickapoo dead (Lewis), within an “area not to exceed 40 feet square” (Dodge). 9 of the Kickapoo were killed immediately, while 2 wounded escaped only to be killed crossing the lake (Trask 234). The Kickapoo were scalped (Lewis) and Peter Parkinson asserts the bodies were mutilated in a show of savagery, to prove they weren’t the “soft-breeds they had said we were” (Trask 234). In his letter to General Atkinson Col. Dodge declared that his men “rushed forward and literally shot the Indians all to pieces” (Dodge).

The Prairie Du Chien Indians arrived after the battle but still took scalps at the urging of the Ho-Chunks. The Menominee, another late arriving band, refused, believing the scalps weren’t theirs to take. Other late arriving bands didn’t share this moral objection (Hall 159). As a kid I was told Bloody Lake got its name because the waters were said to have run red with the slaughtered Kickapoo’s blood.

The battle has become known as The Battle of the Pecatonica (Trask 234) or The Battle of Bloody Lake (Heffron). I have also heard it called The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, but I can’t find a legitimate source for that information. This battle, described as one of the most “pitched and celebrated engagements of the war” (Hall 159), became the first real victory and a turning point for the U.S. in the war (Heffron). This may have also been a turning point for the settlers, leaving them feeling safer about staying there (Thies).

In August of 1919 there was a gathering at the spot, part of the Lovelace farm by that time. The Lovelace family came to the area 6 years after the battle and O. J. Lovelace was 28 years old when the community celebrated the 50^th anniversary of the battle in 1882. Peter Parkinson, a militia member under Col. Dodge attended in 1882, pointing out the site to Lovelace at that time. According to Lovelace, “Mother used to tell of human bones being picked up down by the pond, scene of the battle, occasionally of skulls being placed in the crotches of trees” and “an Indian chief, with some followers camping on the battle ground often borrowed a skull we had, took it into the woods, and held some sort of incantation, but always returning it” (Brandenburg).

Because of the harsh terrain I can only guess that the area lay wild after that, until a monument memorializing the battle was erected. The monument was put up in 1922 by the Shullsburg Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution and local citizens (Heffron).  I have been unable to find record of anything other than the placement of the monument there other than the battle, until recent activities in the current park. I remember going there in the 1970s as a kid though, when it was still mostly overgrown and wild. My dad was one of the few people who knew and cared that the park and memorial were there back then. A photo of me hiding behind the monument, around age 5, can be found with the photos.

The park began to get a make-over around the early 1990s (Thies). A group of volunteers known as The Friends of Woodford Park, which includes the Lafayette County Sportsmen Alliance and The Yellowstone Flint and Cap Club, does all of the caretaking these days. The Bloody Lake Rendezvous began in 1981 (Yellowstone), which could be when the caretaking began. The Sportsmen Alliance presently holds a 10 year lease on the land, which was last renewed on December 31, 2011 with “unspecified minor changes” from the previous lease (Jacobson). I don’t know when the Sportsmen Alliance began leasing the park, but before they took control it was a Lafayette County park (Heffron). On July 28, 2011 Black Hawk Memorial Park found its way onto the National Historic Registry (Jacobson).

These days the park is an oak forest, mainly oak and birch trees. It also includes some maples, elms, weeping willows and poplars, as well. Along the river you will find mostly birch trees. Mixed among the trees are lots of thorny blackberry and mulberry bushes. Keep your eyes out for the dreaded poison ivy and poison oak! In the Dead River area are lots of cattails and there is one prairie area in the front part of the park. It is a bit of a grassland that is kept mowed (Thies).

Turkeys are common, but hard to spot. “You will hear them more than see them”. They coexist in the area with rabbits, grey squirrels and whitetail deer. There are ducks and geese on Horseshoe Lake. Redheaded woodpeckers have also been sighted in the park (Thies). I have seen pheasants, kingfishers, crows, robins and sparrows while camping and have seen evidence of raccoons and woodchucks. I have smelled evidence of skunks as well. I know the park has bats, my dad built the several bat houses for it many years ago.

Several species of snake can be found in the park. One of these, the Yellow-bellied or Blue Racer, is a protected wild animal in Wisconsin. These guys can do up to 4 MPH! Along with these speed demons you might see the Brown or DeKay’s snake, the Common Garter snake, the Eastern Plains Garter snake, the Eastern Milk snake and the Northern Redbelly. Possibly the most interesting is the Eastern Hognose, who fakes his own death when frightened by flopping around, throwing up and then playing dead. (Ssssnakes).

While you won’t find any poisonous snakes in the park you might encounter a couple who want you to think they are. The Northern Water snake is often mistaken for a water moccasin when it swims by an unsuspecting person. There are no water moccasins in the state, so don’t let him frighten you! Last but not least is the Fox snake, who likes to pretend he is a rattler to get out of tight spots. Because of his coloring and habit of flicking his tail around in leaf litter he is often mistaken for the poisonous copperhead. Thankfully, the snakes in the park are harmless, unless you are a mouse.

One of the main features of the park is the Pecatonica River. At the time of the Black Hawk War it was known as the Pickatolica. One source says the original name came from an indigenous word for a local, scaleless fish, the pickatolica (Atwater). I have been unable to determine what species of fish the pickatolica might be known as today. Princeton University says that the name comes from an “anglicization of two Algonquian language words; Bekaa (or Pekaa in some dialects), which means slow and niba, which means water; forming the conjunction Bekaaniba or Slow Water.” (Pecatonica).  A third source supports the latter version, stating that it means “the muddy stream”. (Ginger). Whatever the origin though, I haven’t been able to find information on when the name changed to Pecatonica.

The “Pec” is a slow moving river, making it great for canoeing or tubing, except it has a mud bottom. Although it may have wider bends, it is only about 15-20 feet wide. This stretch of river only averages about 3-5 feet deep, but can have holes up to 8 feet deep. If you try to walk out into the river you will sink halfway to your knees because of the mud bottom. (Thies). A large part of why the river looks like a stream of chocolate milk is because the banks upstream are “high, steep banks of beautiful, dark soil that crumbles easily into the water”. By the time this water reaches the Gulf of Mexico not only is it churning with our fertile soil (Mississippi River), it has leeched a great deal of phosphorus out of the farmland of southwestern Wisconsin (Pecatonica River).

Despite the mud, you will still find plenty of fish, and a whole lot more in or near the waters of the Pecatonica. Some common fish here are channel and flathead catfish, carp, buffalo, northern pike, walleyes, crappies and bluegills (Fishing). Small lizards like Blue-spotted salamanders, Central newts and mudpuppies catch you eye. There are almost a dozen frog and toad species that could be found here! There are American toads, 2 types of treefrog, bull frogs, green frogs, wood frogs and even the Northern Leopard frog, which is another threatened species (Amphibians). Snapping, painted and other turtles can be found swimming in the muddy water (Reptiles). It is not unusual here to find a snapping turtle at the end of your fishing line instead of a fish.

After so many years without even a sign to hint it was there, “this unique park may be the best kept secret in the state”.  Blackhawk Memorial Park is 120 acres of riverbottom land, with 38 scattered campsites that are all great (Heffron). In their book The Best in Tent Camping: Wisconsin. Revolinski and Molloy give the park 5 stars in privacy and spaciousness, 4 stars in quiet and 3 stars each in beauty (I would give it 5), security and cleanliness. Of all the parks reviewed in their book, Black Hawk was rated #1 in “Best for Paddling”. At only $5 per night during the week and $10 per night on Saturdays and Sunday (Revolinski) I can’t imagine there is cheaper camping to be found anywhere in the state.

Part of what keeps the camping so ridiculously cheap is self-registration (Heffron). You are on your honor to pay. That also means no one is monitoring the park, probably why Revolinski and Molloy only gave it 3 stars for security. Occasionally you will see a Lafayette County Sheriff’s Deputy drive through, but mostly you are on your own. This is exactly why some people, like me, love it. I have never felt unsafe in the park, and rather like the lack of scrutiny.

There is a boat launch on the north side of the park as well as one on the south side (Heffron), referred to as the upper and lower. Horseshoe Lake also has a handicap accessible pier (Heffron). There is no electricity throughout the park except the pavilion near the front (Thies). Near the front is also where you will find the pump for water and firewood (Heffron). Near the pavilion is a rough ball diamond area that people can use for a party or a family reunion. That area also has 2 outhouses (Thies) besides the Port-a-Pots throughout the park (Heffron).

Because it is river-bottom land when it rains in the spring, it floods. This flooding brings in the mosquitoes like crazy! By summer the mosquitoes have gone and the park is very comfortable. The deep shadows and light breezes help keep it cool. In the winter the roads aren’t plowed so visiting can be tricky. It is easy to get stuck in the mud during the spring and in the snow and mud in the winter (Thies).

Black Hawk Park is a quiet, secluded place all year long, except for one week. “Starting the Tuesday before the first full weekend in May” the park is home to the Annual Bloody Lake Rendezvous (Yellowstone). By dressing in period garments, using period tools and weapons, “living historians” from all over congregate to revisit the past. Some people like to focus on specific time frames, such as the Fur Trade Era, the War of 1812 and the Civil War. The event has been hosted by the Yellowstone Flint and Cap Club for over 3 decades (Crase).

Most of the historians are crafts persons as well. You can find them working on their leather work, gun making, tatting and lace making, creating recipes and sewing. The Rendezvous gives them an opportunity to trade in their handcrafts with other crafts persons (Crase). My dad, who regularly attends these gatherings, once told me that food and cooking methods are all period, attendees must dress in period attire and nothing newer than around 1840 is allowed in sight during the week. It is a full immersion into another time.

Full immersion into the period is the magical element that many believe brings out the Spirit of the Bloody Lake Rendezvous each year. The Spirit is said to be the gentle and lost soul of a soldier from nearby Fort Hamilton. Just days before the battle at Bloody Lake, that same band of Kickapoo were thought to be responsible for a raid that took place near Spafford Creek. Here the overwhelmed militiamen were captured, staked out and tortured. The soldier was leading this group of “elderly traders and crippled miners”, who were no match for the Natives. In a surge of anger, he frees himself from his bonds. For days he wanders, a “raving madman” before finding his way back to Fort Hamilton. It is unknown if his fellow soldiers mistakenly hung him for desertion or if he took his own life, but whichever it was, his spirit wanders to this day. Sadly, he is “limited to things of his day”, making gatherings like the Rendezvous the only place in time he can still find companionship. And at Bloody Lake Rendezvous, the “rules of hospitality” say to “make room for him by the fire and leave your lodge flaps open”. (Boyer 17-20).

To keep this historical immersion fully intact, the Rendezvous is closed to the public except on Saturday and Sunday. On the weekends, when visitors are allowed you can find competitions and there are games and activities for the kids. Green and Lafayette county history students are invited to spend the day, to “witness living history” (Yellowstone). My dad, Del Potter, Jr., at one time taught “hawk” or tomahawk throwing to the Boy Scout troops that visit the event. Two members of the Flint and Cap Club “give narratives on the Battle of Bloody Lake, telling the historical significance of this area during the Black Hawk War” (Yellowstone). I wonder if they also tell the Spirit’s story each year. I hope to find out for myself someday soon.

Despite the connection I felt to it, I have found that I didn’t know much about Blackhawk Memorial Park before beginning this journey. One of my biggest misconceptions was cleared up when I learned that Chief Blackhawk himself had not passed through, and ultimately died, here. I was surprised to learn that oceans historically covered the area multiple times and erosion has washed away any evidence of dinosaurs. With all of the things I learned, I realize there is something very important that I wasn’t able to learn though. I never found an account of the Kickapoo’s side of things. Their side of history seems to have died with the warriors in the lake.

 Historical Maps and Images with Links

Photo of Colonel Henry Dodge.

Colonel Henry Dodge as a US Ranger.

Map of The Battle of Horse Shoe Bend, June 16, 1832.

Arial view historical painting of the battle site.

My uncle, David Potter, throwing the 'hawk, hitting the mark and my dad, Del Potter, shakes his hand in congratulations. Still images from Roger Bindl's video.

Images from the author’s personal collection

Dusk at upper boat ramp June 7, 2013

Sunrise mist on the Pecatonica River at upper boat ramp June 8, 2013

Early morning camp fire near upper boat ramp June 8, 2013

Sunrise mist on the marsh near upper boat ramp June 8, 2013

Sign for the upper boat ramp and our favorite campsites in the park June 8, 2013

Interesting swampy area along the roadway June 8, 2013

Gated road leading to the Rendezvous area, June 8, 2013

Swampy waterfront along roadway to upper boat ramp, June 8, 2013

Looking back toward the entrance of the park, Horseshoe Lake and the recreation area, June 9, 2013

One Way road sign getting a little overgrown June 9, 2013

Bat house, like the ones my dad made, near Bloody Lake June 9, 2013

What's left of the sign for Bloody Lake June 9, 2013

Bloody Lake June 9, 2013

Bloody Lake June 9, 2013

Plaque on the monument. No idea where they got 17 as the number of Native Americans slaughtered 

in the battle. June 9, 2013

Me hiding behind the monument around 1978 (Photo credit: my mommy)

 Me hiding behind the monument June 9, 2013 (Photo credit: Steve Thies)

Sign leading to the monument June 9, 2013

Links to related sites

Two Eagles Kitchen historical re-enactors blog. Rendezvous photos and videos.

Yellowstone Flint & Cap, Inc.

Roger Binl video tour of Rendezvous 2009. (From 0:18-0:22 my uncle, David Potter, throws a tomahawk and hits a playing card on a stump. His brother, my father Del Potter, shakes his hand in congratulations for hitting the mark. See still frames from video in section above.)

“Brigands' Folie at Bloody Lake Rendevous 2009”. 18th Century Traditional music.

Author’s public photo album “A Walk Down to Bloody Lake”

Author’s public photo album “First Morning at the Campsite”

Sources:

Heffron, Mark. Blackhawk Memorial Park (Bloody Lake). A Pictorial Guide to Wisconsin Parks. N.p. N.d. Web. 22 March 2013.

Revolinski, Kevin and Molloy, Johnny. The Best in Tent Camping: Wisconsin. A guide for car campers who hate RVs, concrete slabs, and loud portable stereos. 2^nd Ed. Birmingham: Menasha Ridge Press. 2007. Print.

State of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Landscapes of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Extension, 2004. Print.

State of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bedrock Geology of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Extension, 2005. Print.

State of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Soil Regions of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Extension, 1993. Print.

State of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Ice Age Deposits of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Extension, 1985. Print.

Barreto, Claudia; Scotchmoor, Judy; Springer, Dale. Wisconsin, US. The Paleontology Portal. University of California Museum of Paleontology, The Paleontological Society, The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology and The US Geological Survey. 1 July 2005. Web. 2 April 2013.

“Pleistocene Animals of the Midwestern US.” Illinois State Museum. Illinois State Museum. N.d. Web. 27 March 2013.

“Cultural Overview of Wisconsin.” Wisconsin History. Wisconsin Historical Society. N.d. Web. 27 March 2013.

Gibson, A. M. The Kickapoos. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963. Print.

State of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Early Vegetation of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Extension, 1965. Print.

State of Wisconsin. Department of Natural Resources. Wisconsin Wildlife Primer: Wildlife Habits and Habitats. Madison: State of Wisconsin. N.d. Print.

Gara, Larry. A Short History of Wisconsin. Kingsport: Kingsport Press, 1964. Print.

“Farming and Rural Life.” Wisconsin History. Wisconsin Historical Society. N.d. Web. 24 April 2013.

Brandenburg, O.D. “Pecatonica Battleground and the Region in La Fayette County Made Historic by the Son of Alexander Hamiltion.” The Madison Democrat. 24 Jan. (1919): N.p. Wisconsin Local History & Biography Articles. Web. 28 April 2013.

Lewis, James D. The Blackhawk War of 1832. The Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitation Project. Northern Illinois University. N.d. Web. 2 April 2013.

Trask, Kerry A. Blackhawk: the battle for the heart of America. New York: Henry Holt, 2006. Print.

Dodge, Henry. Letter to Henry Atkinson. 18 June 1832. Historic Diaries: Blackhawk War. Wisconsin History. Wisconsin Historical Society. N.d. Web. 22 March 2013.

Hall, John W. Uncommon Defense: Indian Allies in the Black Hawk War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009. Print

Thies, Steven. Personal Interview. 14 April 2013.

“Home.” Yellowstone Blackhawk Park. Yellowstone Flint and Cap, Inc. N.d. Web. 27 March 2013.

Jacobson, Carla. “La Fayette County Board of Supervisors Minutes”. La Fayette County. La Fayette County Board of Supervisors. 12 Dec 2011. Web. 15 April 2013.

“SSSSSSSSnakes.” Environmental Education for Kids! Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, April 2013. Web. 24 April 2013.

Atwater, Caleb. Remarks Made on a Tour to Prairie Du Chien; Thence to Washington City, in 1829. Columbus: Whiting, 1831. Print.

“Pecatonica, Illinois.” Princeton University. Princeton University, 2013. Web. 28 April 2013.

Ginger, Joe. “Pecatonica River in Wisconsin and Illinois.” Rock River Sweep. Rock River Sweep. 2 May 2012. Web. 25 April 2013.

“Mississippi River Priority Site. Pecatonica River, Wisconsin.” The Nature Conservancy. The Nature Conservancy, 2013. Web. 24 April 2013.

“Pecatonica River.” The Great Rivers Partnership. The Nature Conservancy. 2012. Web. 24 April 2013.

“Fishing.” Winnebago County Forest Preserve Distirct. Four Rivers Environmental Coalition. 2013. Web. 24 April 2013.

“Amphibians.” Environmental Education for Kids! Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, April 2013. Web. 24 April 2013.

“Reptiles.” Environmental Education for Kids. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, April 2013. Web. 25 April 2013.

Crase, Sue. “Living History of the Past”. Yellowstone Blackhawk Park. Yellowstone Flint and Cap, Inc. N.d. Web. 13 April 2013.

Boyer, Dennis. Driftless Spirits. Madison: Prairie Oak Press, 1996. Print.